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New remote sensing technologies make it feasible and affordable to identify hotspots of deforestation. The international community could undertake monitoring efforts that would have immediate payoffs.

A priority is to fund and coordinate basic monitoring on the rate, location and causes of global deforestation and forest poverty along with the impacts of project and policy interventions. Without this information, policy makers are flying blind and interest groups lack a solid basis for dialogue Chomitz et al.

These approaches include negotiation, warnings, cancelling work orders, notices of violation, fines, arrests and court action. Conclusion Economic globalization combined with the looming global land scarcity increases the complexity of future pathways of land use change. In a more interconnected world, agricultural intensification may cause more rather than less cropland expansion. The apparent tradeoff between forest and agriculture can be minimized through spatial management and the use of degraded or low competition lands Lambin and Meyfroidt, This can be further addressed by community based forest management which builds on political goodwill and strong community institutions.

New challenges from climate change require urgent action to explore and protect the local value of forests for livelihood even more. These renewed activities will safeguard traditional ways of life and the environmentally important forest ecosystems of the world.

References Amor, D. Road impact on deforestation and jaguar habitat loss in the Selva Maya. Early history of the impact of road investments on deforestation in the Mayan forest. Angelsen, A. Shifting cultivation and deforestation: a study from Indonesia. World Development Agricultural expansion and deforestation: modeling the impact of population, market forces and property rights. Journal of Development Economics A stylized model of incentives to convert, maintain or establish forest.

Agricultural technologies and tropical deforestation. Why do farmers expand their land into forests? Theories and evidence from Tanzania. Environment and Development Economics 4: FAO, Rome. Situation and outlook of the Forestry Sector in Indonesia, Vol. Indonesia: sustainable development of forests, land and water. Rainforest destruction: causes, effects and false solutions.

World Rainforest Movement, Penang Malaysia. The Forest Sector. Forest Products: Yearbook Deforestation Technical Support Package. World Wildlife Fund; U. Environmental Protection Agency and U. Agency for International Development. Breaking the logjam: obstacles to forestry policy reform in Indonesia and the United States. World Resource Institute, Washington. Indonesia: Environment and Development. Anonymous, a.

FAO Forestry Paper Rome, Italy. FAO, Rome Italy. Anonymous c. Climate Change Synthesis Report. Forest certification and biodiversity: opposites or complements? Ecosystems and Human well-being: synthesis. Millennium ecosystem Assessment. Island Press, Washington DC. Three Essential Strategies for Reducing Deforestation.

Mexico: Mining causes ecocide in Coahuayana, Michoacan. Anonymous, Mining, deforestation cause severe drought. Ascher, W. Political economy and problematic forestry policies in Indonesia: obstacles to incorporating sound economics and science. Asdrasko, K. Aylward, B. Land use, hydrological function and economic valuation. In: Forest, water and people in the humid tropics, eds. Bonell, M. Barbier, E. An economic analysis of Shrimp farm expansion and mangrove conversion in Thailand.

Land Economics Paradise lost? The ecological economics of biodiversity. The timber trade and tropical deforestation in Indonesia.

Environmental Economics Centre, London. Barraclough, S. Agricultural Expansion and Tropical Deforestation. Bawa, K. Tropical ecosystems into the 21st Century. Science Bhatnagar, P. The Problem of Afforestation in India. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun. Bruijnzeel, L. Hydrological functions of tropical forests: not seeing the soils for the trees?

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment Forest, water and people in the humid tropics: an emerging view. In: Forest, Water and People in the humid tropics, eds.

Bryant, D. The last frontier forests- Ecosystems and Economies on the Edge. Capistrano, A. Tropical forest depletion and the changing macroeconomy Brown, K. UCL Press. Carvalho, G. Sensitive development could protect Amazonia instead of destroying it.

Nature An Amazon perspective on the forest-climate connection: opportunity for climate mitigation, conservation and development? Environment, Development and Sustainability 6: Frontier expansion in the Amazon: balancing development and sustainability. Environment Caviglia, J. Sustainable Agriculture in Brazil.

Economic Development and Deforestation. Edward Elgar. Chakravarty, S. Journal of Intellectual Property Rights Charney, J. Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel. Quarterly Journal of Royal Meteorological Society Chomitz, K. Deforestation, shifting cultivation and tree crops in Indonesia: nationwide patterns of smallholder agriculture at the forest frontier.

World Bank, Washington DC. At loggerheads? Agricultural expansion, poverty reduction and environment in the tropical forests. World Bank Policy Research Report. Colchester, M. And Lohmann, L. The Struggle for land and the fate of forest. Zed books, London. Contreras-Hermosilla, A. The underlying causes of forest decline.

Illegal activities and corruption in the forest sector. Pp Cossalter, C. Fast-wood forestry, myths and realities. Cropper, M and Griffiths, C. The interaction of population growth and environmental qualiy.

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Dickinson, R. Effects of tropical deforestation on climate. In blowing in the wind, deforestation and language implications. Studies in third world societies, Publ. Forest land use, forest use zonation and deforestation in Indonesia: a summary and interpretation of existing information. Docena, H. Philippines: Deforestation through mining subsidized by CDM project. Dove, M. Smallholder rubber and swidden agriculture in Borneo: a sustainable adaptation to the ecology and economy of the tropical forest.

Economic Botany So far from power, so near to the forest: a structural analysis of gain and blame in tropical development. In: Borneo in transition: people, forests, conservation and development, eds. Padoch, C. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lampur. Dregne, H. Desertification of Arid lands. Harwood Academia Publishers, London. Dudley, N. Running Pure. Ehrhardt-Martinez, K. Social determinants of deforestation in developing countries: A cross-national study.

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Houghton, R. Tropical deforestation as a source of greenhouse gas emissions. In: Tropical deforestation and Climate change, eds. Moutinho, P. Humphreys, D. Forest Politics. Earthscan Publications Ltd. Kaimowitz, D. Economic models of tropical deforestation. A review.

Kant, S. An econometric model of tropical deforestation. Journal of Forestry Economics 3: Kartodihardjo, H. The impact of sectoral development on natural forest conversion and degradation: the case of timber and tree crop plantations. Lambin, E. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. PNAS Lawton, R.

Climatic impact of tropical lowland deforestation on nearby Montane Cloud Forests. Lean, G. World Wildlife Fund Atlas of the Environment. Prentice Hall, New York. In Technical Report, Phase I Mahar, D. Mangave, H. Thesis, Bharathidasan University.

Mather, A. Global Forest Resources. Mullick, B. India: Indigenous movement in Jharkhand challenge plans for industrial development that threatens to destroy Adivasi forests, farmlands and way of life. Myers, N. Norton, New York. Tropical deforestation: rates and patterns. The economic and statistical analysis of factors giving rise to the loss of the tropical forest, eds. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nepstad, D. Road paving, fire regime and the future of Amazon forests.

Forest Ecology and Management Inhibition of Amazon deforestation and fire by parks and indigenous lands. Conservation Biology Panayotou, T. The economics of environmental degradation: problems, causes and responses, HIID Development discussion papers Harvard University. Pearce, D. Pinker, R. The microclimate of a dry tropical forest. Agricultural Meteorology Porter, G. Current History Purnamasari, R. Dynamics of small-scale deforestation in Indonesia: examining the effects of poverty and socio-economic development.

Unasylva Putz, F. Tropical forest management and conservation of biodiversity: An overview. Raloff, J. Where Acids Reign. Science News July Repetto, R. The forest for the trees? Government policies and the misuse of forest resources. Deforestation in the Tropics. Scientific American April, p. Conditionality and logging reform in the tropics. Keohane, R. Rowe, R. Deforestation: problems, causes and concern. Sharma, N. Rowntree, P. Review of General Circulation Models as a basis for predicting the effects of vegetation change on climate.

In: Forests, climate and hydrology, regional impacts, eds. Reynolds, E. Sands, R. Forestry in a Global Context. CABI Publishing. Schmink, M. Contested Frontiers in Amazonia. Columbia University Press, New York. Schneider, R. Government and economy on the Amazon frontier.

Environment Paper Scrieciu, S. Economic causes of tropical deforestation- a global empirical application. Sheram, K. The Environmental Data Book. Shukla, G. Southgate, D. Tropical deforestation and agricultural development in Latin America. Staff, S. Mining deforestation nearly tripled between Archives, Wednesday October 13 Sukumar, R. Final Report.

Sunderlin, W. Thiele, R. How to manage tropical forests: the case of Indonesia. Intereconomics Van Kooten, G. The economics of nature: managing biological assets. Van Noordwijk, M. Managing watershed services in ecoagriculture land-scapes. In: The State-of-the-Art of Ecoagriculture, eds. McNeely, J. Wilkie, D. Roads, development and conservation in the Congo Basin. Human impacts on floods and flood disasters on the Yangtze River. Geomorphology The Western Himalaya comprises of the eastern part of Himachal Pradesh and the state of Uttarakhand between the rivers Satluj and Sharada.

Oaks Quercus spp. In the Western Himalaya, oak species assume considerable conservation significance as they are providers of numerous ecosystem services conservation of soil, water, native flora and fauna and serve as lifeline for the local communities.

Predominantly three oak species Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. The oak forests are source of fuelwood, fodder and can be correlated with natural springs and wildlife Singh, The Himalaya is the home of many unique and diverse human groups, living in the river valleys and mountain slopes which differ from each other in terms of language, culture, tradition, religion and patterns of resource use.

They have been subsisting on the Himalayan natural resources for millennia. Other than excessive exploitation by the local communities, replacement of oak by pine Singh et al. These forests have been burnt from time to time by the local inhabitants in order to encourage growth of grasses and to increase the preponderance of the fire-resistant commercial species e.

In this chapter we are mainly concerned with three major forms of activities that have affected the western Himalayan oak, grazing, fuelwood and fodder collection. All these three activities are mainly linked to subsistence living of the local population of the hills. We provide local data on these parameters from Kedarnath Wildlife sanctuary, Western Himalaya.

Material and methods 2. The area is characterized by undulating topography, wide variation in the altitude, rain fall, temperature and soil conditions. The area is an important wintering range of several high altitude animals and is used by a large number of local agro-pastoral and migratory community gujjars besides tourists and pilgrims during summer. About villages are distributed around Kedarnath WS, of which about 50 are close to the wildlife area. The main pressure on the protected area PA is in the summer season involving grazers like sheep, goats and buffaloes along with the load of pilgrimage and collection of fuelwood and fodder.

About twenty villages situated close to the sanctuary were selected for the present study. Livestock rearing and tourism are the main landuse practices across different altitudinal zones in the region.

Based on extensive reconnaissance survey and dominance, three types of forests, Q. There were around 16 camping sites present in the study area from where data was collected.

These camps are regularly visited by the pastoral communities every year, therefore an attempt was made to understand the impact of grazing and camping on the forest cover. Basal area area occupied by the base of a tree is a good indicator of the size and volume or weight of a tree. Girth of cut stumps was measured at ground level and basal area for cut stumps was calculated.

Cut stump index was calculated on the basis of the ratio of basal area of cut stumps to the total stand basal area including felled ones. Stratified random transects with 10 plots at every m interval depending upon the accessibility, were laid in all three types of forests along the altitudinal and anthropogenic pressure gradients. For the ground layer i. In each stipulated plot, name of the species, number, circumference at breast height CBH, 1.

Transects were laid along pathways and streams in forests in spatially distributed pattern, so as to minimize the autocorrelation in the vegetation. Field data was analyzed both in regress scientific purposes and simple convenience of local people and management authority methods, where it was quantitatively analysed for frequency, density and basal area following the standard ecological methods. The Importance Value Index IVI for tree species was determined as the sum of relative frequency, relative density, and relative basal area.

Species richness, the number of species per unit area, Shannon diversity index, and evenness index were also calculated. For the estimation of fuelwood and fodder collection, informal interviews were taken in each village. Interviews revealed on an average, two people per day par household were involved in fuelwood and fodder collection.

The total number of households in each village were multiplied by two to give an approximation of the total population responsible TPR for fuelwood and fodder collection in each village. The identification of major fuelwood and fodder species was mainly based on interviews, informal discussions and personal observations of the authors. The quantity of fuelwood and fodder collection was estimated over a period of 24 hours using a weighted survey method.

Similarly, the fodder lot was weighed before keeping for the stall feeding and measured on a daily basis. Results and discussion 3. Livestock mainly feed on small regenerating plants and in this process they gradually eliminate the understory vegetation of the forest. People, who carry livestock with them, meet their needs for fuelwood and timber for making huts and poles for fencing from the surrounding forests. As a result of regular lopping and logging, the canopy density continues to decrease, as younger plants are not available to occupy the open canopies.

Sanctuary and nearby forests in cool temperate and sub-alpine zones are frequently grazed by livestock of migratory community gujjar as well as local people for 6 to 8 months. Shrub density in village forests was higher than away from village and nearer to the sanctuary forests. This is because excessive grazing supports high shrub cover of unpalatable species Singh and Singh, Among the dominant tree species, Q.

Sarcococca saligna and Daphne papyracea were only shrubs which were frequently found in understory of all the three different forests. Comparison of vegetation at different distance from villages.

This clearly indicates that there has been a steady increase in the area of grazing land at the cost of forest cover around camping sites i. Conversion of forest to grazing land across various time periods 3. In the western Himalaya, about Due to low connectivity with the urban areas of the country, the alternative sources of energy resources are not easily accessible hence making the population totally dependent on wood resources Table 3 of the area.

The information on fuelwood resources of the Himalaya is almost scattered. The issue as such has been addressed invariably but there has been no attempt to correlate the fuelwood consumption by villagers and migratory nomads Gujjars. A total of species of vascular plants angiosperms, gymnosperms and pteridophytes belonging to genera and families, were recorded from the region Singh, According to growth habits these species were distributed across herbs, shrubs, 74 trees, 43 climbers, 70 graminoides and 61 ferns.

Among all, 88 woody species 54 trees and 34 shrubs are commonly used for fuelwood by the local people Singh et al.

The diversity of fuelwood use was depended on the species quality, accessibility and availability and also the human population of the adjoining villages Singh and Singh, Seasonal variation of resources extracted from the forests was very much evident from the study. In permanent villages, fuelwood was either cut directly from the forests or dead wood of any kind was collected. Fuelwood consumption at permanent village did not vary across different seasons.

Whereas at temporary huts or shops, the fuelwood consumption was restricted between April to October, but due to high tourist season and low temperature at higher altitude, use of fuelwood was quite high compared to permanent residents of villages. Zone Important fuelwood species Important fodder species Grewia optiva, Celtis australis, Caesalpinia decapetata, Ficus roxburghii, Ficus nemoralis, Daphniphyllum himalayense, Warm temperate Ficus claveta, Quercus Alnus nepalensis, Lyonia m leucotrichophora, Quercus glauca, ovalifolia, Quercus Sinarundinaria falcata, leucotrichophora Chrysopogon gryllus Quercus floribunda, Quercus Quercus semecarpifolia, semecarpifolia,Thamnocalamus Cool temperate Quercus floribunda, Lyonia spathiflora,Thamnocalamus m ovalifolia, Rhododendron falconeri,Chimnobambussa arboreum, Abies pindrow jaunsarensis, Chrysopogon gryllus Quercus semecarpifolia, Sub-alpine Quercus semecarpifolia, Rhododendron campanulatum, m Thamnocalamus falconeri Rhododendron arboreum Table 3.

Consumption of major fuelwood and fodder species at different altitudinal zone. Fuelwood collection by villagers in the warm temperate region Singh et al. Fuelwood collection by villagers in the cool temperate region Singh et al. Out of 14 dhabas, 12 dhabas consumed fuelwood on an average of 0. This consumption of fuelwood continued up to 6 months May to October , during the remaining two months April and November 2 dhabas consumed 1.